The Radio Amateur's Hand Book, by A. Frederick Collins is part of HackerNoon’s Book Blog Post series. You can jump to any chapter in this book here: [LINK TO TABLE OF LINK]. Chapter VI: How the Transmitting and Receiving sets work.
VI. HOW THE TRANSMITTING AND RECEIVING SETS WORK
The easiest way to get a clear conception of how a wireless transmitter sends out electric waves and how a wireless receptor receives them is to take each one separately and follow: (1) in the case of the transmitter, the transformation of the low voltage direct, or alternating current into high potential alternating currents; then find out how these charge the condenser, how this is discharged by the spark gap and sets up high-frequency currents in the oscillation circuits; then (2) in the case of the receptor, to follow the high frequency currents that are set up in the aerial wire and learn how they are transformed into oscillations of lower potential when they have a larger current strength, how these are converted into intermittent direct currents by the detector and which then flow into and operate the telephone receiver.
How Transmitting Set No. 1 Works. The Battery and Spark Coil Circuit.--When you press down on the knob of the key the silver points of it make contact and this closes the circuit; the low voltage direct current from the battery now flows through the primary coil of the spark coil and this magnetizes the soft iron core. The instant it becomes magnetic it pulls the spring of the vibrator over to it and this breaks the circuit; when this takes place the current stops flowing through the primary coil; this causes the core to lose its magnetism when the vibrator spring flies back and again makes contact with the adjusting screw; then the cycle of operations is repeated.
A condenser is connected across the contact points of the vibrator since this gives a much higher voltage at the ends of the secondary coil than where the coil is used without it; this is because: (1) the self-induction of the primary coil makes the pressure of the current rise and when the contact points close the circuit again it discharges through the primary coil, and (2) when the break takes place the current flows into the condenser instead of arcing across the contact points.
Changing the Primary Spark Coil Current Into Secondary Currents.--Now every time the vibrator contact points close the primary circuit the electric current in the primary coil is changed into closed magnetic lines of force and as these cut through the secondary coil they set up in it a momentary current in one direction. Then the instant the vibrator points break apart the primary circuit is opened and the closed magnetic lines of force contract and as they do so they cut the turns of wire in the secondary coil in the opposite direction and this sets up another momentary current in the secondary coil in the other direction. The result is that the low voltage direct current of the battery is changed into alternating currents whose frequency is precisely that of the spring vibrator, but while the frequency of the currents is low their potential, or voltage, is enormously increased.
What Ratio of Transformation Means.--To make a spark coil step up the low voltage direct current into high potential alternating current the primary coil is wound with a couple of layers of thick insulated copper wire and the secondary is wound with a thousand, more or less, number of turns with very fine insulated copper wire. If the primary and secondary coils were wound with the same number of turns of wire then the pressure, or voltage, of the secondary coil at its terminals would be the same as that of the current which flowed through the primary coil. Under these conditions the ratio of transformation, as it is called, would be unity.
The ratio of transformation is directly proportional to the number of turns of wire on the primary and secondary coils and, since this is the case, if you wind 10 turns of wire on the primary coil and 1,000 turns of wire on the secondary coil then you will get 100 times as high a pressure, or voltage, at the terminals of the secondary as that which you caused to flow through the primary coil, but, naturally, the current strength, or amperage, will be proportionately decreased.
The Secondary Spark Coil Circuit.--This includes the secondary coil and the spark gap which are connected together. When the alternating, but high potential, currents which are developed by the secondary coil, reach the balls, or electrodes, of the spark gap the latter are alternately charged positively and negatively.
Now take a given instant when one electrode is charged positively and the other one is charged negatively, then when they are charged to a high enough potential the electric strain breaks down the air gap between them and the two charges rush together as described in the chapter before this one in connection with the discharge of a condenser. When the charges rush together they form a current which burns out the air in the gap and this gives rise to the spark, and as the heated gap between the two electrodes is a very good conductor the electric current surges forth and back with high frequency, perhaps a dozen times, before the air replaces that which has burned out. It is the inrushing air to fill the vacuum of the gap that makes the crackling noise which accompanies the discharge of the electric spark.
In this way then electric oscillations of the order of a million, more or less, are produced and if an aerial and a ground wire are connected to the spark balls, or electrodes, the oscillations will surge up and down it and the energy of these in turn, are changed into electric waves which travel out into space. An open circuit transmitter of this kind will send out waves that are four times as long as the aerial itself, but as the waves it sends out are strongly damped the Government will not permit it to be used.
The Closed Oscillation Circuit.--By using a closed oscillation circuit the transmitter can be tuned to send out waves of a given length and while the waves are not so strongly damped more current can be sent into the aerial wire system. The closed oscillation circuit consists of: (1) a spark gap, (2) a condenser and (3) an oscillation transformer. The high potential alternating current delivered by the secondary coil not only charges the spark gap electrodes which necessarily have a very small capacitance, but it charges the condenser which has a large capacitance and the value of which can be changed at will.
Now when the condenser is fully charged it discharges through the spark gap and then the electric oscillations set up surge to and fro through the closed circuit. As a closed circuit is a very poor radiator of energy, that is, the electric oscillations are not freely converted into electric waves by it, they surge up to, and through the aerial wire; now as the aerial wire is a good radiator nearly all of the energy of the electric oscillations which surge through it are converted into electric waves.
How Transmitting Set No. 2 Works. With Alternating Current. The operation of a transmitting set that uses an alternating current transformer, or power transformer, as it is sometimes called, is even more simple than one using a spark coil. The transformer needs no vibrator when used with alternating current. The current from a generator flows through the primary coil of the transformer and the alternations of the usual lighting current is 60 cycles per second. This current sets up an alternating magnetic field in the core of the transformer and as these magnetic lines of force expand and contract they set up alternating currents of the same frequency but of much higher voltage at the terminals of the secondary coil according to the ratio of the primary and secondary turns of wire as explained under the sub-caption of Ratio of Transformation.
With Direct Current.--When a 110 volt direct current is used to energize the power transformer an electrolytic interruptor is needed to make and break the primary circuit, just as a vibrator is needed for the same purpose with a spark coil. When the electrodes are connected in series with the primary coil of a transformer and a source of direct current having a potential of 40 to 110 volts, bubbles of gas are formed on the end of the platinum, or alloy anode, which prevent the current from flowing until the bubbles break and then the current flows again, in this way the current is rapidly made and broken and the break is very sharp.
Where this type of interrupter is employed the condenser that is usually shunted around the break is not necessary as the interrupter itself has a certain inherent capacitance, due to electrolytic action, and which is called its electrolytic capacitance, and this is large enough to balance the self-induction of the circuit since the greater the number of breaks per minute the smaller the capacitance required.
The Rotary Spark Gap.--In this type of spark gap the two fixed electrodes are connected with the terminals of the secondary coil of the power transformer and also with the condenser and primary of the oscillation transformer. Now whenever any pair of electrodes on the rotating disk are in a line with the pair of fixed electrodes a spark will take place, hence the pitch of the note depends on the speed of the motor driving the disk. This kind of a rotary spark-gap is called non-synchronous and it is generally used where a 60 cycle alternating current is available but it will work with other higher frequencies.
The Quenched Spark Gap.--If you strike a piano string a single quick blow it will continue to vibrate according to its natural period. This is very much the way in which a quenched spark gap sets up oscillations in a coupled closed and open circuit. The oscillations set up in the primary circuit by a quenched spark make only three or four sharp swings and in so doing transfer all of their energy over to the secondary circuit, where it will oscillate some fifty times or more before it is damped out, because the high frequency currents are not forced, but simply oscillate to the natural frequency of the circuit. For this reason the radiated waves approach somewhat the condition of continuous waves, and so sharper tuning is possible.
The Oscillation Transformer.--In this set the condenser in the closed circuit is charged and discharged and sets up oscillations that surge through the closed circuit as in Set No. 1. In this set, however, an oscillation transformer is used and as the primary coil of it is included in the closed circuit the oscillations set up in it produce strong oscillating magnetic lines of force. The magnetic field thus produced sets up in turn electric oscillations in the secondary coil of the oscillation transformer and these surge through the aerial wire system where their energy is radiated in the form of electric waves.
The great advantage of using an oscillation transformer instead of a simple inductance coil is that the capacitance of the closed circuit can be very much larger than that of the aerial wire system. This permits more energy to be stored up by the condenser and this is impressed on the aerial when it is radiated as electric waves.
How Receiving Set No. I Works.--When the electric waves from a distant sending station impinge on the wire of a receiving aerial their energy is changed into electric oscillations that are of exactly the same frequency (assuming the receptor is tuned to the transmitter) but whose current strength (amperage) and potential (voltage) are very small. These electric waves surge through the closed circuit but when they reach the crystal detector the contact of the metal point on the crystal permits more current to flow through it in one direction than it will allow to pass in the other direction. For this reason a crystal detector is sometimes called a rectifier, which it really is.
Thus the high frequency currents which the steel magnet cores of the telephone receiver would choke off are changed by the detector into intermittent direct currents which can flow through the magnet coils of the telephone receiver. Since the telephone receiver chokes off the oscillations, a small condenser can be shunted around it so that a complete closed oscillation circuit is formed and this gives better results.
When the intermittent rectified current flows through the coils of the telephone receiver it energizes the magnet as long as it lasts, when it is de-energized; this causes the soft iron disk, or diaphragm as it is called, which sets close to the ends of the poles of the magnet, to vibrate; and this in turn gives forth sounds such as dots and dashes, speech or music, according to the nature of the electric waves that sent them out at the distant station.
How Receiving Set No. 2 Works.--When the electric oscillations that are set up by the incoming electric waves on the aerial wire surge through the primary coil of the oscillation transformer they produce a magnetic field and as the lines of force of the latter cut the secondary coil, oscillations of the same frequency are set up in it. The potential (voltage) of these oscillations are, however, stepped down in the secondary coil and, hence, their current strength (amperes) is increased.
The oscillations then flow through the closed circuit where they are rectified by the crystal detector and transformed into sound waves by the telephone receiver as described in connection with Set No. 1. The variable condenser shunted across the closed circuit permits finer secondary tuning to be done than is possible without it. Where you are receiving continuous waves from a wireless telephone transmitter (speech or music) you have to tune sharper than is possible with the tuning coil alone and to do this a variable condenser connected in parallel with the secondary coil is necessary.
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Collins, A. Frederick. 2002. The Radio Amateur's Hand Book. Urbana, Illinois: Project Gutenberg. Retrieved April 2022, from https://www.gutenberg.org/files/6934/6934-h/6934-h.htm#chap06
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